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Author Topic: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat  (Read 233932 times)

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Offline Meg

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Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
« Reply #840 on: August 09, 2017, 10:41:05 AM »
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  • I guess I wasn't terribly clear that it is only the people who react with vitriol who are the ones with the demonic world view. Otherwise why do they resist with so much name-calling, anger and denial?  Flat earth is indeed a difficult thing to wrap one's head around, but it never should invoke the kind of demeaning trash-talk and threats flat earthers often endure. Conversely, flat earthers owe everyone charitable responses.  Sometimes, in our haste, after having been haggled and dogged and called morons long enough, we too lash out (like Peter with his sword) but usually only after repeated aggression. Still...not good. As you mentioned, we really must try to maintain good example.  It is also true that sound doctrine and truth are often not endured today and the person delivering it is seen as a bad guy, divisive, rude when he's not, and uncharitable just for speaking the truth. This response to truth is often used as a weapon to shut down the message and is difficult to ignore.  Formulating excellent and charitable responses in every condition is something I've worked on with this subject for the past 10 years.  Someday, I hope to be an expert!      :pray: :)        

    Thank you for your thoughtful post. God bless you for all of the good work and efforts in defense of the flat earth. You are correct about the system that the ball-earthers uphold is demonic- it's just that they don't know that. They do believe that they are doing the right thing by upholding the status quo, even though it empowers a freemasonic and pagan agenda, IMO. 

    You know a lot more about FE than I do, so I will continue to learn about the finer details from you.  :)
    "It is licit to resist a Sovereign Pontiff who is trying to destroy the Church. I say it is licit to resist him in not following his orders and in preventing the execution of his will. It is not licit to Judge him, to punish him, or to depose him, for these are acts proper to a superior."

    ~St. Robert Bellarmine
    De Romano Pontifice, Lib.II, c.29

    Offline Meg

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #841 on: August 09, 2017, 10:47:11 AM »
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  • Here is a very nice flat-earth legend:

    THE EARTH ON TURTLE'S BACK                        

    Before Earth was here there was only water as far as one could see in all directions, with birds and animals swimming around in it. Up above in the clouds there was Skyland. In Skyland was a great and beautiful tree with four white roots stretching to the four sacred directions. Every kind of fruit and flower grew from its wide spreading branches.

    The Chief of Skyland's young wife was expecting a child. One night she dreamt she saw the great tree uprooted. The next morning she told her husband her dream. "This is very sad," he said, "for it is a dream of great power and we must do all we can to make it come true." Then the chief called all the men together and told them they must uproot the tree. But the roots were so deep and strong they couldn't budge it. So the ancient chief himself wrapped his arms around the tree and strained and strained, until with one last great effort he uprooted it. Now there was a great hole where the tree's roots had been. The chief's wife came and leaned over to look down, holding the tip of one of the uprooted tree's branches to steady herself, Far below she thought she saw something glittering like water. Leaning out further she lost her balance and fell into the hole. Her hand slipped from the tip of the branch, leaving her only a handful of seeds as she fell.

    Far, far below in the waters some of the animals looked up. "Someone is falling from the sky," said one.

    "We must help her," said another. Then two Swans flew up and caught her between their wings, and brought her gently down to the water where the birds and animals were watching.

    She is not like us," said one of the animals. "She doesn't have webbed feet. I don't think she can live in the water." "What shall we do?" said another of the water animals.

    "I know," said one of the birds. "I have heard there is Earth far below the waters. If we dive down and bring up Earth she will have a place to stand. So the birds and animals tried to bring up Earth. First Duck dove far down beneath the surface, but he couldn't reach the bottom and floated back up. Then Beaver tried. He went even deeper, so deep that it was all dark, but he couldn't reach the bottom either. Then Loon tried and was gone a long, long time, but he too failed to bring up Earth. Soon it seemed that all had tried and failed. Then a small voice spoke.

    "I will bring up Earth or die trying." They all looked to see who it was. It was little Muskrat. She dove down and swam and swam. She was not as strong and swift as the others, but she was determined. She went so deep that it was all dark, and still she swam deeper. Her lungs felt ready to burst, but she swam deeper still. At last, just as she was becoming unconscious, she grasped at the bottom with her little paw and floated upwards, almost dead. When the other animals saw her break the surface, they thought she had failed. Then they saw her right paw was held tightly shut.

    "She has the Earth," they said. "Now where can we put it?"

    "Put it on my back," said a deep voice. It was Great Turtle who had come up from the depths. They brought Muskrat over and placed her paw against his back. To this day there are marks at the back of Turtle's shell that were made by Muskrat's paw. The tiny bit of Earth fell on the back of Turtle. Almost immediately it began to grow and grow until it became the whole world.

    Then the two Swans brought Sky Woman down. She stepped onto the new Earth and opened her hand, letting the seeds fall onto the bare soil. From the seeds the trees and grass and flowers sprang up. Life on Earth had begun.


    Creation Story from the Onondaga Tribe, From Keepers of the Earth by Michael J. Caduto & Joseph Bruchac

    Neil,

    I don't know why you are posting a creation story from the Onondaga peoples, unless you are trying to equate a flat earth with Indian stories. The Indian peoples tried to make sense of the world, and developed stories that would make sense to them. They were observers of natural law, especially in that most of them believed in some sort of creator.

    However, we Catholics have the benefit of revelation and sacred scripture. Do you believe that the Book of Genesis, in relation to the earth, is a myth, on par with the Indian creation stories?
    "It is licit to resist a Sovereign Pontiff who is trying to destroy the Church. I say it is licit to resist him in not following his orders and in preventing the execution of his will. It is not licit to Judge him, to punish him, or to depose him, for these are acts proper to a superior."

    ~St. Robert Bellarmine
    De Romano Pontifice, Lib.II, c.29


    Offline moosy

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #842 on: August 10, 2017, 09:56:59 AM »
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  • can't believe there is a conversation going on with a guy who believes in Aliens.

    AND works for NASA!

    Offline TomGubbinsKimmage

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #843 on: August 10, 2017, 02:43:24 PM »
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  • A user over on the flat earth forum made this post:

    http://flatearthtrads.forumga.net/t154-why-the-solar-eclipse-shadow-moves-from-west-to-east

    The sun causes a shadow for every object it passes over as it moves across the sky above the flat plane of the earth from dawn until dusk, east to west.

    Therefore, at dawn the shadows of a tree or a lamppost are on the west side of the object.
    Then the shadow is directly below the tree or lamppost at noon, as the sun passes directly overhead.
    Finally, the shadows are to the east of the tree or lamppost, as the sun sets in the west.

    It is this exact same movement of the sun which explains why the shadow of the moon moves from west to east.

    The sun is at a higher altitude than the moon.

    When the eclipse begins, the sun is "rising" above the moon from the east, making the shadow of the moon hit the ground to the west in, say, Oregon. As the sun passes directly above the moon at its zenith ("noon") point, then the shadow will be directly under the moon, hitting the ground in say, Kansas City. Last, the shadow will be to the east of the moon as the sun "sets" to the west of it, causing the shadow to hit the ground in say, Georgia.

    The shadow will also be elongated at "rise" and "set," explaining the overall elliptical shape, and more circular at zenith. You can do this experiment for yourself by observing a timelapse photo of the shadow of a lamppost from rise to set.

    Here's a good example video: the shadows of these vertical doorposts move across the floor from west to east (left to right) as you see the sun rise in the east (right) side of the camera frame. This shows the exact effect of what happens during the solar eclipse:



    It is a much simpler explanation when you know the earth is a flat plane, than the unintelligible one the media/NASA tries to give:



    Also, the eclipse shadow is reported to be 70-100 miles wide, so this would be the width of the moon.

    The shadow of any given object corresponds to its size. The width of a shadow of an object does not change, only the length, as it elongates due to the lengthening distance of the source light (the sun) and the angle approaching zero.

    Offline TomGubbinsKimmage

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #844 on: August 10, 2017, 03:18:00 PM »
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  • Does this shadow look like 70 miles to you?

    Well NASA says it is suppose to be!

    And at the same time it says this is a real photo.


    Offline TomGubbinsKimmage

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #845 on: August 10, 2017, 03:34:32 PM »
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  • Offline Neil Obstat

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #846 on: August 10, 2017, 07:05:21 PM »
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  • Does this shadow look like 70 miles to you?

    Well NASA says it is suppose to be!

    And at the same time it says this is a real photo.
    .
    The shadow you see there crossing Africa is the darker portion of the penumbra which is much larger, only the resolution here doesn't give the outer fringes of it, which extend to the tip of southern Africa and into Europe. At the center of the penumbra is the umbra or total darkness, if it is a total solar eclipse. An annular eclipse doesn't have the umbra shadow in the center because the tip of it falls short of the earth's surface.
    .
    All this is explained in previous posts, which you have apparently ignored.
    .
    The "70 miles" does not refer to the penumbra. It is the total width of the dark, central umbra shadow, which is in the center of the penumbra. If that were visible in the image you posted above, it would appear as a black dot in the middle. The image is too large to show that, since it would be perhaps a dozen or so pixels, easily lost in the shadows of other features in a photo this large.
    .
    I saw the moon this morning giving a very interesting appearance, as the sun was already shining in the eastern sky while the moon was setting in the west. It is now in the waning gibbous phase, just after the full moon phase of Monday. 
    .
    The illuminated side of the moon was angled upwards at what appeared to be where the sun ought to be at high noon, at first glance. But it's not always this startling in its appearance at this phase, since the orbit of the moon is usually closer to where the sun crosses the sky. Being on its way to crossing paths with the sun, the moon appears to lean back and look up (so to speak) toward the sun, which is at tremendously greater distance from earth than the moon is.
    .
    This month, the moon is ascending from a very low path in the sky, which was visible at the previous new moon, when it seemed rather unlikely that the very next new moon would be at the same place as the sun (this is going to happen on August 21st, for all to see). 
    .
    So the moon now is halfway to its path that it will achieve in just 11 days from now. The moon is rising and setting a good deal south of where the sun is rising and setting. But its path is very quickly advancing northward, while the sun's path is now moving southward (being after the summer solstice). On the 21st, it will rise and set right about the same place where the sun rises and sets, only rising a few minutes prior to the sun, and setting a few minutes after the sun. You can see these times on the almanac website for Aug. 21st.:

                   Dawn         Rises         Sets

    Sun       4:50 A.M.  6:19 A.M.  7:31 P.M.

    Moon                      6:09 A.M.  7:44 P.M.

    .
    So the sun will rise 10 minutes after the moon rises, and the sun will set 13 minutes after the moon sets on the day of the total solar eclipse.
    .
    And what should be most elucidating for those who want to know the truth (which apparently excludes dogmatic flat-earthers!) this will be the case for everyone in the continental USA, Canada, and Latin America, within a few seconds. 
    .
    Because if the junk theory of flat-earthism were correct, this would not be the case. 
    .


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    Offline Neil Obstat

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #847 on: August 10, 2017, 07:08:57 PM »
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  • Neil,

    I don't know why you are posting a creation story from the Onondaga peoples, unless you are trying to equate a flat earth with Indian stories. The Indian peoples tried to make sense of the world, and developed stories that would make sense to them. They were observers of natural law, especially in that most of them believed in some sort of creator.
    .
    But flat-earthers in trying to make sense of the world, have developed a story that would make sense to them, too. The only difference is, the junk theory they've come up with doesn't make any sense.
    .
    .--. .-.-.- ... .-.-.- ..-. --- .-. - .... . -.- .. -. --. -.. --- -- --..-- - .... . .--. --- .-- . .-. .- -. -.. -....- -....- .--- ..- ... - -.- .. -.. -.. .. -. --. .-.-.


    Offline Neil Obstat

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #848 on: August 10, 2017, 07:14:54 PM »
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  • All of Neil's examples involve situations in which the subject cannot be seen with the naked eye over a great distance. However, these examples don't work, because we can clearly see the sun during daylight hours. I don't believe that the sun can possibly be 93 million miles away; otherwise, we wouldn't be able to see it clearly. And we would not be able to gain heat and light from it either. This sounds simplistic, I know. It doesn't have to be complicated.
    My examples work, but you have chosen to think they don't. Just saying so doesn't make it so.
    .
    We can see the sun just fine during night time hours, we just have to look at it from the other side of earth. There are people over there, you know.
    .
    Please notice I'm the only one providing examples to substantiate my explanation, while the flat-earthers have no examples, refuse to take any measurements, and have never once attempted to discuss any of the objective data. That's because they don't have any data to discuss. They do not have sun rising times or moon rising times. They don't have specific distances for the sun from the earth or the moon from the earth. They just say "they're about 3,000 miles," but then the sun is higher above the earth than the moon is, never how many miles further. They can't give any specific numbers because they have no way of demonstrating where the numbers come from. It's all speculation and fantasy.
    .
    Flat-earthism is a junk theory.
    .
    We can see other stars clearly that are much further away than the sun is. It's just a matter of magnification.
    .
    If we were as close to the sun as Mercury or Mars is, we would be feeling the sun's heat a lot more than we do.
    .
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    Offline happenby

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #849 on: August 10, 2017, 07:49:33 PM »
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  • My examples work, but you have chosen to think they don't. Just saying so doesn't make it so.
    .
    We can see the sun just fine during night time hours, we just have to look at it from the other side of earth. There are people over there, you know.
    .
    Please notice I'm the only one providing examples to substantiate my explanation, while the flat-earthers have no examples, refuse to take any measurements, and have never once attempted to discuss any of the objective data. That's because they don't have any data to discuss. They do not have sun rising times or moon rising times. They don't have specific distances for the sun from the earth or the moon from the earth. They just say "they're about 3,000 miles," but then the sun is higher above the earth than the moon is, never how many miles further. They can't give any specific numbers because they have no way of demonstrating where the numbers come from. It's all speculation and fantasy.
    .
    Flat-earthism is a junk theory.
    .
    We can see other stars clearly that are much further away than the sun is. It's just a matter of magnification.
    .
    If we were as close to the sun as Mercury or Mars is, we would be feeling the sun's heat a lot more than we do.
    .
    When you say flat earth is a junk theory you fly in the face of the Catholic Church, Catholic Fathers, Saints, Popes, science and tradition. It is Heliocentrism that has no history in the Church.  Global earth is a faction of heliocentrism as shown prior in this thread and it feeds the beast of the NWO, the new mass, modernism and relativity.  Proof otherwise is requested for I have provided exponential amounts of Catholic teaching with literally zero content to the contrary except Youtubes that contradict themselves and have no Church authority behind them. Big claims demand big proof.  Saying the flat earth is junk is not enough. The Catholic Church has spoken and there are no defendants to the contrary.

    Offline Neil Obstat

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #850 on: August 10, 2017, 08:55:29 PM »
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  • When you say flat earth is a junk theory you fly in the face of the Catholic Church, Catholic Fathers, Saints, Popes, science and tradition. 
    .
    Wrong. Flat-earthism is the junk theory of yours.
    .
    Quote
    It is Heliocentrism that has no history in the Church.  
    .
    There you go, again, accusing me of heliocentrism. So, you're a liar. Simple. I have told you again and again, but you say I'm not telling the truth. You are a liar and a caluminator. 
    .
    Quote
    Global earth is a faction of heliocentrism as shown prior in this thread and it feeds the beast of the NWO, the new mass, modernism and relativity.  Proof otherwise is requested for I have provided exponential amounts of Catholic teaching with literally zero content to the contrary except Youtubes that contradict themselves and have no Church authority behind them. Big claims demand big proof.  Saying the flat earth is junk is not enough. The Catholic Church has spoken and there are no defendants to the contrary.
    .
    Face it, happenby. You're just full of it. Flat-earthism is a junk theory. Wake up.
    .
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    Offline Meg

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #851 on: August 10, 2017, 11:54:36 PM »
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  • .
    But flat-earthers in trying to make sense of the world, have developed a story that would make sense to them, too. The only difference is, the junk theory they've come up with doesn't make any sense.
    .

    You conveniently left out the question that I asked you from that post - so I'll ask you again: Do you think that the description of the earth in sacred scripture (Genesis) is on par with Indian creation stories? You tend to ignore any reference to sacred scripture.
    "It is licit to resist a Sovereign Pontiff who is trying to destroy the Church. I say it is licit to resist him in not following his orders and in preventing the execution of his will. It is not licit to Judge him, to punish him, or to depose him, for these are acts proper to a superior."

    ~St. Robert Bellarmine
    De Romano Pontifice, Lib.II, c.29

    Offline Meg

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #852 on: August 10, 2017, 11:58:16 PM »
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  • My examples work, but you have chosen to think they don't. Just saying so doesn't make it so.

    I keep telling you why your examples don't work, and you pay no attention. No sense in responding anymore to that particular issue.
    "It is licit to resist a Sovereign Pontiff who is trying to destroy the Church. I say it is licit to resist him in not following his orders and in preventing the execution of his will. It is not licit to Judge him, to punish him, or to depose him, for these are acts proper to a superior."

    ~St. Robert Bellarmine
    De Romano Pontifice, Lib.II, c.29

    Offline Meg

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #853 on: August 11, 2017, 12:06:42 AM »
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  • .
    Wrong. Flat-earthism is the junk theory of yours.
    ..
    There you go, again, accusing me of heliocentrism. So, you're a liar. Simple. I have told you again and again, but you say I'm not telling the truth. You are a liar and a caluminator.
    ..
    Face it, happenby. You're just full of it. Flat-earthism is a junk theory. Wake up.
    .

    Why don't you tell us exactly what your beliefs are regarding geocentrism, since you say you are a proponent. Please be specific.
    "It is licit to resist a Sovereign Pontiff who is trying to destroy the Church. I say it is licit to resist him in not following his orders and in preventing the execution of his will. It is not licit to Judge him, to punish him, or to depose him, for these are acts proper to a superior."

    ~St. Robert Bellarmine
    De Romano Pontifice, Lib.II, c.29

    Offline Neil Obstat

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    Re: 50 Plus Reasons The Earth Is Not Flat
    « Reply #854 on: August 11, 2017, 03:52:27 AM »
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  • Introduction:
    Welcome to our Dr.Sky.com website coverage of what may well be the largest Astronomy
    event in the past century!
    We hope that this tutorial, will be of help to you and yours, so you may get the most out of
    this rare celestial event!
    We believe the content below, will help answer many of your questions and concerns.
    E-mail the Dr.Sky Team at: drsky@cox.net……


    Some History……..

    I have had the honor of being able to witness four of these type eclipses…..March 7th 1970,
    in Perry, Florida…..July 10th 1972, in far northern Canada in Quebec…..May 30th 1984 ….
    a near total eclipse ( deep annular), along costal Maryland……July 11th 1991…a great total
    solar eclipse, from the big island in Hawaii……and now…the August 21st 2017, “Great American Total Solar Eclipse”, from Rexburg, Idaho!

    The next major total solar eclipse, visible in the USA, will occur on April 8th 2024!
    I was lucky, I saw this rare phenomenon, within two years between the first eclipse in 1970,
    twelve years between the 1972 eclipse and the 1984 event. After that, there was seven years
    between eclipses ….and finally, 26 years between the 2017 eclipse and the 1991 event!
    Way too long to wait!

    How many eclipses have you seen? And if you did see one, was it a true total solar eclipse?
    These type of eclipses are rare, if you stay in the same location and wait for one to return to
    your home….after you see your FIRST one, you will have true “Eclipse Fever” and want to
    see your next one!

    Some say that it takes around 350 years on average for a total solar eclipse to return to the exact location that you saw the last one!
    Either way, we hope that this basic, but informative guide will help you to enjoy this rare
    celestial event, in comfort and safety!

     
    What Is A Solar Eclipse?
    A solar eclipse is a natural event that takes place on Earth when the Moon moves in its orbit between Earth and the Sun (this is also known as an occultation). It happens at New Moon, when the Sun and Moon are in conjunction with each other. If the Moon was only slightly closer to Earth, and orbited in the same plane and its orbit was circular, we would see eclipses each month. The lunar orbit is elliptical and tilted with respect to Earth’s orbit, so we can only see up to 5 eclipses per year. Depending on the geometry of the Sun, Moon and Earth, the Sun can be totally blocked, or it can be partially blocked.
    During an eclipse, the Moon’s shadow (which is divided into two parts: the dark umbra and the lighter penumbra) moves across Earth’s surface. Safety note: do NOT ever look at the Sun directly during an eclipse unless it is during a total solar eclipse. The bright light of the Sun can damage your eyes very quickly.
    Facts About Solar Eclipses
    Depending on the geometry of the Sun, Moon, and Earth, there can be between 2 and 5 solar eclipses each year.
    Totality occurs when the Moon completely obscures Sun so only the solar corona is showing.
    A total solar eclipse can happen once every 1-2 years. This makes them very rare events.s.

    The longest a total solar eclipse can last is 7.5 minutes.
    The width of the path of totality is usually about 160 km across and can sweep across an area of Earth’s surface about 10,000 miles long.
    Almost identical eclipses occur after 18 years and 11 days. This period of 223 synodic months is called a saros.

    During a total solar eclipse, conditions in the path of totality can change quickly. Air temperatures drop and the immediate area becomes dark.
    If any planets are in the sky at the time of a total solar eclipse, they can be seen as points of light.

    TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE
    A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon completely blocks the solar disk. In a total solar eclipse, the narrowest part of the path (where the Sun is completely blocked and the Moon casts its darkest shadow (called the umbra)) is called the “zone of totality”.
    Observers in this path see a darkened Sun (often described as a “hole in the sky”) with the ghostly glow of the solar corona extending out to space. A phenomenon called “Bailey’s Beads” often appears as sunlight shines out through valleys on the lunar surface. If the Sun is active, observers can also see solar prominences, loops, and flares during totality. A total solar eclipse is the ONLY time when it is safe to look directly at the Sun. ALL other solar observations (even in partial phases) require special solar filters so that you do not harm your eyes.
    Total solar eclipses have not always been visible from Earth. In the past, the Moon was too close to Earth and during eclipses it completely blotted out the Sun’s disk. Over time, the lunar orbit has changed at the rate of just over 2 cm per year and in the current epoch, the alignment is nearly perfect at times. However, the Moon’s orbit will continue to widen, and in perhaps 600 million years, total solar eclipses will no longer occur. Instead, future observers will see partial and annular eclipses only.
    ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSE
    Not every solar eclipse is a total one. When the Moon is farther away in its orbit than usual, it appears too small to completely cover the Sun’s disk. During such an event, a bright ring of sunlight shines around the Moon. This type of eclipse is a called an “annular” eclipse. It comes from the Latin word “annulus” which means “ring”.
    The period of annularity during such an eclipse can last anywhere from 5 or 6 minutes to up to 12 minutes. However, even though the Sun is mostly covered by the Moon, enough bright sunlight escapes during annularity that observers cannot ever look at the Sun directly. These events require eye protection throughout the entire eclipse.
    PARTIAL SOLAR ECLIPSE
    A partial solar eclipse occurs when Earth moves through the lunar penumbra (the lighter part of the Moon’s shadow) as the Moon moves between Earth and the Sun. The Moon does not block the entire solar disk, as seen from Earth. Depending on your location during a partial eclipse, you might see anything from a small sliver of the Sun being blotted out to a nearly total eclipse.
    To view any eclipse safely, use approved filters or use an indirect method of viewing, such as projecting sunlight through a telescope and onto a white piece of paper or cardboard. NEVER look at the Sun through a telescope unless it has the appropriate filter. Blindness and severe eye damage can result due to improper observation technique.

    Eye Safety and Solar Eclipses-
    B. Ralph Chou, MSc, OD
    Associate Professor, School of Optometry, University of Waterloo

    A total solar eclipse is probably the most spectacular astronomical event that most people will experience in their lives. There is a great deal of interest in watching eclipses, and thousands of astronomers (both amateur and professional) travel around the world to observe and photograph them.
    A solar eclipse offers students a unique opportunity to see a natural phenomenon that illustrates the basic principles of mathematics and science that are taught through elementary and secondary school. Indeed, many scientists (including astronomers!) have been inspired to study science as a result of seeing a total solar eclipse. Teachers can use eclipses to show how the laws of motion and the mathematics of orbital motion can predict the occurrence of eclipses. The use of pinhole cameras and telescopes or binoculars to observe an eclipse leads to an understanding of the optics of these devices. The rise and fall of environmental light levels during an eclipse illustrate the principles of radiometry and photometry, while biology classes can observe the associated behavior of plants and animals. It is also an opportunity for children of school age to contribute actively to scientific research – observations of contact timings at different locations along the eclipse path are useful in refining our knowledge of the orbital motions of the Moon and earth, and sketches and photographs of the solar corona can be used to build a three-dimensional picture of the Sun’s extended atmosphere during the eclipse.

    However, observing the Sun can be dangerous if you do not take the proper precautions. The solar radiation that reaches the surface of Earth ranges from ultraviolet (UV) radiation at wavelengths longer than 290 nm to radio waves in the meter range. The tissues in the eye transmit a substantial part of the radiation between 380 and 1400 nm to the light-sensitive retina at the back of the eye. While environmental exposure to UV radiation is known to contribute to the accelerated aging of the outer layers of the eye and the development of cataracts, the concern over improper viewing of the Sun during an eclipse is for the development of “eclipse blindness” or retinal burns.
    Exposure of the retina to intense visible light causes damage to its light-sensitive rod and cone cells. The light triggers a series of complex chemical reactions within the cells which damages their ability to respond to a visual stimulus, and in extreme cases, can destroy them. The result is a loss of visual function which may be either temporary or permanent, depending on the severity of the damage. When a person looks repeatedly or for a long time at the Sun without proper protection for the eyes, this photochemical retinal damage may be accompanied by a thermal injury – the high level of visible and near-infrared radiation causes heating that literally cooks the exposed tissue. This thermal injury or photocoagulation destroys the rods and cones, creating a small blind area. The danger to vision is significant because photic retinal injuries occur without any feeling of pain (there are no pain receptors in the retina), and the visual effects do not occur for at least several hours after the damage is done [Pitts, 1993].
    The only time that the Sun can be viewed safely with the naked eye is during a total eclipse, when the Moon completely covers the disk of the Sun. It is never safe to look at a partial or annular eclipse, or the partial phases of a total solar eclipse, without the proper equipment and techniques. Even when 99% of the Sun’s surface (the photosphere) is obscured during the partial phases of a solar eclipse, the remaining crescent Sun is still intense enough to cause a retinal burn, even though illumination levels are comparable to twilight [Chou, 1981, 1996; Marsh, 1982]. Failure to use proper observing methods may result in permanent eye damage or severe visual loss. This can have important adverse effects on career choices and earning potential, since it has been shown that most individuals who sustain eclipse-related eye injuries are children and young adults [Penner and McNair, 1966; Chou and Krailo, 1981].

    The same techniques for observing the Sun outside of eclipses are used to view and photograph annular solar eclipses and the partly eclipsed Sun [Sherrod, 1981; Pasachoff & Menzel 1992; Pasachoff & Covington, 1993; Reynolds & Sweetsir, 1995]. The safest and most inexpensive method is by projection. A pinhole or small opening is used to form an image of the Sun on a screen placed about a meter behind the opening. Multiple openings in perfboard, in a loosely woven straw hat, or even between interlaced fingers can be used to cast a pattern of solar images on a screen. A similar effect is seen on the ground below a broad-leafed tree: the many “pinholes” formed by overlapping leaves creates hundreds of crescent-shaped images.
    Binoculars or a small telescope mounted on a tripod can also be used to project a magnified image of the Sun onto a white card. All of these methods can be used to provide a safe view of the partial phases of an eclipse to a group of observers, but care must be taken to ensure that no one looks through the device. The main advantage of the projection methods is that nobody is looking directly at the Sun. The disadvantage of the pinhole method is that the screen must be placed at least a meter behind the opening to get a solar image that is large enough to see easily.
    The Sun can only be viewed directly when filters specially designed to protect the eyes are used. Most such filters have a thin layer of chromium alloy or aluminum deposited on their surfaces that attenuates both visible and near-infrared radiation. A safe solar filter should transmit less than 0.003% (density~4.5)[1] of visible light (380 to 780 nm) and no more than 0.5% (density~2.3) of the near-infrared radiation (780 to 1400 nm). Figure 24 shows the spectral response for a selection of safe solar filters.
    One of the most widely available filters for safe solar viewing is shade number 14 welder’s glass, which can be obtained from welding supply outlets. A popular inexpensive alternative is aluminized mylar manufactured specifically for solar observation. (“Space blankets” and aluminized mylar used in gardening are not suitable for this purpose!) Unlike the welding glass, mylar can be cut to fit any viewing device, and doesn’t break when dropped. Many experienced solar observers use one or two layers of black-and-white film that has been fully exposed to light and developed to maximum density. The metallic silver contained in the film emulsion is the protective filter. Some of the newer black and white films use dyes instead of silver and these are unsafe. Black-and-white negatives with images on it (e.g., medical x-rays) are also not suitable. More recently, solar observers have used floppy disks and compact disks (both CDs and CD-ROMs) as protective filters by covering the central openings and looking through the disk media. However, the optical quality of the solar image formed by a floppy disk or CD is relatively poor compared to mylar or welder’s glass. Some CDs are made with very thin aluminum coatings which are not safe – if you can see through the CD in normal room lighting, don’t use it!! No filter should be used with an optical device (e.g. binoculars, telescope, camera) unless it has been specifically designed for that purpose and is mounted at the front end (i.e., end towards the Sun). Some sources of solar filters are listed in the following section.
    Unsafe filters include all color film, black-and-white film that contains no silver, photographic negatives with images on them (x-rays and snapshots), smoked glass, sunglasses (single or multiple pairs), photographic neutral density filters and polarizing filters. Most of these transmit high levels of invisible infrared radiation which can cause a thermal retinal burn (see Figure 24). The fact that the Sun appears dim, or that you feel no discomfort when looking at the Sun through the filter, is no guarantee that your eyes are safe. Solar filters designed to thread into eyepieces that are often provided with inexpensive telescopes are also unsafe. These glass filters can crack unexpectedly from overheating when the telescope is pointed at the Sun, and retinal damage can occur faster than the observer can move the eye from the eyepiece. Avoid unnecessary risks. Your local planetarium, science center, or amateur astronomy club can provide additional information on how to observe the eclipse safely.
    There has been concern expressed about the possibility that UVA radiation (wavelengths between 315 and 380 nm) in sunlight may also adversely affect the retina [Del Priore, 1991]. While there is some experimental evidence for this, it only applies to the special case of aphakia, where the natural lens of the eye has been removed because of cataract or injury, and no UV-blocking spectacle, contact or intraocular lens has been fitted. In an intact normal human eye, UVA radiation does not reach the retina because it is absorbed by the crystalline lens. In aphakia, normal environmental exposure to solar UV radiation may indeed cause chronic retinal damage. However, the solar filter materials discussed in this article attenuate solar UV radiation to a level well below the minimum permissible occupational exposure for UVA (ACGIH, 1994), so an aphakic observer is at no additional risk of retinal damage when looking at the Sun through a proper solar filter.
    In the days and weeks preceding a solar eclipse, there are often news stories and announcements in the media, warning about the dangers of looking at the eclipse. Unfortunately, despite the good intentions behind these messages, they frequently contain misinformation, and may be designed to scare people from seeing the eclipse at all. However, this tactic may backfire, particularly when the messages are intended for students. A student who heeds warnings from teachers and other authorities not to view the eclipse because of the danger to vision, and learns later that other students did see it safely, may feel cheated out of the experience. Having now learned that the authority figure was wrong on one occasion, how is this student going to react when other health-related advice about drugs, alcohol, AIDS, or smoking is given [Pasachoff, 1997] Misinformation may be just as bad, if not worse than no information at all.
    In spite of these precautions, the total phase (and only the total phase) of an eclipse can and should be viewed without filters. It is crucial that you know when to take off and put back on your glasses; see Eye safety during a total solar eclipse
    Eclipses In History- From Time and Date.com
    Scientific Discoveries
    The British astronomer and mathematician, Sir Arthur Eddington, used the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 to test Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

    By taking pictures of stars near the Sun during totality, Eddington was able to show that gravity can bend light. This phenomenon is called gravitational deflection.
    All eclipses worldwide 1900–2099
    Helium Named After the Sun
    A solar eclipse is also responsible for the discovery of helium. The first piece of evidence for the existence of the second lightest and the second most abundant element known to humans was discovered by the French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse on August 16, 1868. Because of this, it’s named after the Greek word for the Sun: Helios.
    Predicting the Emperor’s Future

    Surviving records have shown that the Babylonians and the ancient Chinese were able to predict solar eclipses as early as 2500 BCE.
    In China, solar eclipses were thought to be associated with the health and success of the emperor, and failing to predict one meant putting him in danger. Legend has it that 2 astrologers, Hsi and Ho, were executed for failing to predict a solar eclipse. Historians and astronomers believe that the eclipse that they failed to forecast occurred on October 22, 2134 BCE, which would make it the oldest solar eclipse ever recorded in human history.

    Mythology of eclipses
    Substitute Kings
    Clay tablets found at ancient archaeological sites show that the Babylonians not only recorded eclipses—the earliest known Babylonian record is of the eclipse that took place on May 3, 1375 BCE—but were also fairly accurate in predicting them. They were the first people to use the saros cycle to predict eclipses. The saros cycle relates to the lunar cycle and is about 6,585.3 days (18 years, 11 days, and 8 hours) long.

    How often do solar eclipses occur?
    Like the ancient Chinese, the Babylonians believed that solar eclipses were bad omens for kings and rulers. Predicting solar eclipses enabled them to seat substitute kings during solar eclipses with the hope that these temporary kings would face the anger of the Gods, instead of the real king.
    Eclipses as Peacemakers
    According to the Greek historian Herodotus, a solar eclipse in 585 BCE stopped the war between the Lydians and the Medes, who saw the dark skies as a sign to make peace with each other.
    The Greek astronomer Hipparchus used a solar eclipse to determine that the Moon was about 429,000 km (268,000 mi) away from the Earth. This is only about 11% more than what today’s scientists accept as the average distance between the Moon and the Earth.
    Kepler Close, Halley Closer
    Although early eclipse pioneers, including Chinese astronomer Liu Hsiang, Greek philosopher Plutarch, and Byzantine historian Leo Diaconus tried to describe and explain solar eclipses and their features, it was not until 1605 that astronomer Johannes Kepler gave a scientific description of a total solar eclipse.
    More than a century later, Edmund Halley, who the famous Halley’s comet is named after, predicted the timing and path of the total solar eclipse on May 3, 1715. His calculations were only 4 minutes and about 30 km (18 mi) off from the actual timing and path of the eclipse.
    Halley’s comet causes 2 annual meteor showers: the Eta Aquarids and the Orionids.

    Some Other Notable Solar Eclipses in History
    The scientific fascination with solar eclipses has led to some important scientific discoveries about the nature of the Sun, Moon, and our solar system.
    Year
    Date
    Type
    Importance
    632
    January 27
    Annular

    Visible in Medina, Saudi Arabia, the eclipse coincided with the death of Prophet Mohammad’s son Ibrahim. The Prophet reportedly dismissed rumors that this was a miracle, stating that the Sun and the Moon are signs of God and that they are not eclipsed for the birth or death of any man.

    1133
    August 2
    Total

    King Henry’s Eclipse: King Henry I died shortly after the eclipse, prompting the spread of the superstition that eclipses are bad omens for rulers.

    1836
    May 15
    Annular

    English astronomer Francis Baily first discovered and described Baily’s beads—a phenomenon that occurs in the seconds before and after totality in a total solar eclipse and annularity in an annular solar eclipse.

    1851
    July 28
    Total

    The first photograph of the Sun’s corona was taken by a Prussian photographer called Berkowski.

    2009
    July 21/22
    Total

    Longest total solar eclipse of the 21st century. Totality lasted for 6 mins and 39 secs.
    Links To Eclipses in History:
    cs.astronomy.com/asy/b/astronomy/archive/2014/09/24/the-10-most-important-eclipses-in-history.aspx
    www.eclipsewise.com/extra/SEhistory.html
    www.bibalex.org/eclipse2006/HistoricalObservationsofSolarEclipses.htm
    How Eclipses Are Predicted:
    www.webassign.net/seedfoundatCH03-4.ions/ebook/html
    astronomy.stackexchange.com/questions/231/what-is-the-formula-to-predict-lunar-and-solar-eclipses-accurately
    eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEmono/reference/explain.html
    Your Guide To The 2017 “Great American Solar Eclipse”-
    How To Photograph A Solar Eclipse:
    www.eclipse2017.org/201grap7/photohing.HTM
    www.mreclipse.com/SEphoto/SEphoto.html
    The Reaction of Nature /During a Total Solar Eclipse:
    Amazing things happen from the natural world, during a total solar eclipse…Here are some
    links to what may occur!

    americaneclipseusa.com/about-eclipses/total-solar-eclipse-phenomena/
    The Amazing “Shadow Bands”/ What Are They? / How To Observe Them!:
    eclipse2017.nasa.gov/what-are-shadow-bands
    www.strickling.net/shadowbands.htm
    Here is an activity that you can participate in, if you are in the path of totality!
    How dark will the sky get during the eclipse?:

    www.globeatnight.org/eclipse-2017/GaN2017_ActivityGuide_UrsaMajor.pdf
    What Will The Sky Look Like At The Moment Of Totality:
    Courtesy: Shadow and Sunstance.com

    During the few minutes of totality; Venus and Mercury will be visible in a clear sky, as well as many of the bright stars in the sky.
    The Sun will be very close to the bright star, Regulus in Leo the Lion.

    How many stars can you see and for how long?
    Here is a listing of what we feel are some of the best links for the August 2017 eclipse!
    Links:
    DR. SKY/ The Dr.Sky Show
    www.drsky.com
    ECLIPSE LINKS:
    www.eclipse2017.org/2017/path_through_the_US.htm
    www.greatamericaneclipse.com/
    eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse.html
    www.greatamericaneclipse.com/statistics/
    HOW TO PHOTOGRAPH THE ECLIPSE
    www.nikonusa.com/en/learn-and-explore/a/tips-and-techniques/how-to-photograph-a-solar-eclipse.html
    www.mreclipse.com/SEphoto/SEphoto.html
    COAST TO COAST AM-
    Dr.Sky Appears Each Monday Night 10 PM PDT

    www.coasttocoastam.com/
    The Next Major Eclipse In America- April 8th 2024
    xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/TSE_2024_GoogleMapFull.html
    KTAR/ News  92.3 FM/ Dr.Sky Blog:
    ktar.com/category/dr-sky-blog/
    Amazing Links:
    Follow the August 21st 2017 Eclipse / Interactive GOOGLE Map:
    xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/TSE_2017_GoogleMapFull.html
    This is the BEST site to look at the details of the eclipse…locations, times, percentage
    of eclipse, etc. We suggest you use this and tell others!

    Shadow and Substance:
    A great site that shows you what you can expect with the eclipse in each state and some great
    Eclipse and other sky simulations…..We really like this one and you will too!!!

    shadowandsubstance.com/2017/2017e.html
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