1444. Having discussed in the preceding paragraphs the sins opposed to
the internal acts of charity (love, joy and peace), we come now to
treat of scandal and coöperation which are opposed to the external acts
of charity--beneficence and brotherly correction.

1445. Scandal.--Scandal is derived from a Greek word signifying a snare
or trap prepared for an enemy, or a stone or block laid in the road
that he may stumble or trip over it. In use, it is applied in a wide or
general sense, and in a strict or special sense. (a) In its wide sense,
it refers to any kind of harm, especially of a spiritual or moral
nature, that one brings on others. (b) In its strict sense, it refers
to a fall into sin which one occasions for others by misconduct.

1446. The following are some examples of the word "scandal" as employed
in its wide sense: (a) It is used to signify physical or natural
injuries of various kinds. Thus, the servants of Pharaoh called the
plagues brought on Egypt by Moses a scandal (Exod., x. 7), and the
Psalmist says of the sinner that he laid a scandal (calamity) against
his brother (Ps. xlix. 20). Those who spread defamatory gossip are
called scandal-mongers, and "scandal" often signifies opprobrium or
disgrace, as when Shakespeare speaks of the wrangling of nobles as a
scandal to the crown. (b) The word "scandal" is also used to signify
moral injuries distinct from inducement to sin. Thus, the shock and
offense given to virtuous persons by blasphemous language spoken in
their hearing is described as a scandal, and one who would prevent
another from following some more perfect course or practice to which
there is no obligation (such as entering religion, saying grace at
meals, etc.), is sometimes said to scandalize.

1447. Definition of Scandal.--In the strict sense, scandal is defined
as "any conduct that has at least the appearance of evil and that
offers to a neighbor an occasion of spiritual ruin."

(a) By conduct is understood external behavior or manner of acting in
the presence of others. Thus, scandal differs from sin, for sin is
committed, not only by external acts done before others, but also by
internal thoughts and desires and external acts that are secret.

(b) Scandal is conduct which is evil at least in appearance, that is,
sinful, or from the circuмstances seemingly sinful. Thus, an act is not
scandalous, if it is morally indifferent or a less good, and is
perceivable as being such.

(c) Scandal tends to spiritual ruin, that is, to a fall into sin, great
or small. Here scandal strictly understood differs from scandal in the
wide senses given in the previous paragraph.

(d) Scandal is an occasion of a fall into sin, that is, it sets an
example of sin before the attention, and thus suggests to the will that
the will imitate the sin. Scandal is not, however, the cause of sin,
for a person causes his own sin in yielding consent to the suggestion
offered by scandal.

(e) Scandal is to another. A person may be said to scandalize himself
in the sense that by his looks or acts he puts himself in an occasion
of sin (Matt., v. 29, 30), or inasmuch as he maliciously makes the acts
of a virtuous neighbor an occasion of sin; but scandal is more properly
understood of an occasion of sin prepared for one's neighbor.

1448. Causes of Scandal.--There are various divisions of scandal
according to the kinds of external acts. (a) There is scandal in words,
as profane language or calumnies spoken in a gathering of people. (b)
There is scandal in acts, as when one is perceptibly drunk or fights in
a city street. Scandal applies also to things, in so far as they are
the result of acts or related to acts, such as disedifying books,
pictures, dress. Thus, one gives scandal by having sinful objects on
display, such as profane mottoes on one's wall, obscene advertisements
or announcements on one's billboards. (c) There also may be scandal in
omission, as when one is conspicuously absent from Mass on Sundays.

1449. The following kinds of sinful acts are not scandalous, for they
are unknown to others, and hence cannot suggest sin: (a) internal acts,
such as wicked thoughts, desires, emotions; (b) external acts concealed
from others, such as inaudible profanity, intoxication not noticeable
by others, omission of an obligatory penance about which others have no
knowledge.

1450. There are, likewise, various divisions of scandal according to
the internal purpose of the scandalizer. (a) Scandal is directly
intentional, when the purpose of the scandalizer is to lead others to
the guilt of sin (diabolical scandal). Example: Titus blasphemes
religion before Caius in order that the latter may become irreligious,
and thus be more easily persuaded to follow a life of crime. (b)
Scandal is indirectly intentional when the purpose of the scandalizer
is to perform some action whose nature is such that it will lead others
to the guilt of sin, and he is determined to perform that action,
although not directly willing the neighbor's guilt that will result.
Example: Titus does not like to see his children drunk, but he likes to
get drunk himself occasionally, knowing all the while that his example
encourages them to drink.

1451. In the following cases there is no intention of scandal: (a) when
one does an act that has no appearance of evil, and one neither
directly nor indirectly wills that it should be an occasion of sin to
anyone. Example: Balbus performs his duties faithfully, although he
knows to his regret that his fidelity occasions envy and hatred in
Claudius; (b) when one does an act that is evil or apparently evil, but
is invincibly ignorant of the scandal it may give. Example: Sempronius
and Titus converse together in a foreign tongue which they confidently
think Caius does not understand. The conversation is disedifying, and
Caius, who does understand, is shocked by what they say.

1452. The act of the scandalizer who intends, directly or indirectly,
the spiritual ruin of his neighbor, is called active scandal, while the
act of the person who takes occasion from the active scandal to incur
spiritual ruin, is called passive scandal. Active and passive scandal
are sometimes together, sometimes apart. (a) Thus, there is both active
and passive scandal, when the scandalizer wills the fall of his
neighbor, and the scandalized does fall. (b) There is active but not
passive scandal, when the scandalizer wills the fall of his neighbor,
but the latter does not fall into the snare. (c) There is passive but
not active scandal, when one makes the good action rightly performed by
another an occasion of sin. Thus, some made the life and passion of our
Lord a pretext for not accepting Him (Matt., xiii. 57; John, vi. 62; I
Cor., i. 23), and are said to have been scandalized at Him.

1453. As to the act that occasions the spiritual ruin of another, it
must be wrong either in reality or in appearance. (a) The scandalous
act is wrong in reality, when it is forbidden as a sin--for example,
offering sacrifice in the temple of an idol, or diverting to personal
use money collected for the poor. (b) The scandalous act is wrong in
appearance, when on account of circuмstances it seems to be an act
forbidden as a sin. Thus, to take part in a banquet held in a pagan
temple might seem like participation in sacrificial rites (I Cor.,
viii. 10), to expend secretly the money collected for the poor might
have the appearance of improper use of funds (II Cor., viii. 20, 21).
Hence, St. Paul directs; "From all appearance of evil refrain
yourselves" (I Thess., v. 22).

1454. The acts wrong in reality or in appearance that give scandal are
innumerable, since the whole world is seated in wickedness (I John, v.
19). But today there are a number of acts that should be specially
mentioned, as they occasion sin oftener or for more persons than other
acts. Among these are: (a) occasions of sin against faith, such as
atheistical literature, as discussed in the section on faith; (b)
occasions of sin against morals, such as obscenity in dress, pictures,
plays, writings, and dances. These last-mentioned will be discussed now
in separate paragraphs.

1455. Obscenity.--Obscenity is a quality of words, acts or objects by
which impure thoughts are conveyed, or impure desires or actions
suggested. We may consider it either internally (i.e., in the intention
of the person who uses the words, acts or objects) or externally (i.e.,
in the nature of the things themselves which are used).

(a) Thus, internal obscenity, or the will to use what will corrupt the
minds and morals of others, is of course a mortal sin. If the intention
is to deprave another, the guilt of direct scandal is incurred; if the
intention is only to satisfy one's own wish to use the sinful words,
acts or objects, the guilt is that of indirect scandal. Thus, a woman
who dresses fashionably in order to excite impure love is guilty of
direct scandal; if she dresses immodestly, not to excite impure love,
but to follow a fashion, she is guilty of indirect scandal.

(b) External obscenity is the tendency of words, acts or objects
themselves to call up impure images in the mind, or to excite impure
desires or actions in those to whom they are presented. The use of such
words, acts, etc., is therefore a mortal sin. For, if the thing said or
done is wrong in itself (such as obscene language), it is a scandalous
sin against purity, if it is wrong on account of those who will be
influenced (such as a talk on sex matters to immature or weak persons),
it is a sin of scandal. Hence, a good or even religious motive (such as
instruction, refutation of error, health, or mysticism) does not excuse
the employment of what is clearly obscene, for the end does not justify
the means.

1456. It is not always easy to determine in particular cases when a
thing is obscene from its very nature, but the following general rules
can be given:

(a) Pictures, statues and other images are obscene, when they represent
scenes of immoral or sɛҳuąƖ acts, or lascivious attitudes or postures;
also, when they represent nude or partly nude human figures, ut quando
depinguntur verenda adultorum vel pectora aut partes minus honestæ
mulierum.

(b) Female dress or adornment is lascivious, when there is a notable
display of the person through abbreviated skirts, necks, and sleeves;
or a suggestiveness expressed in transparency of material or a
closeness of fit that brings out the lines and curves of the figure; or
in an extremity of fashion whose striking color or design will make the
wearer conspicuous and direct special attention to her physical charms.

(c) Plays on the stage or moving picture screen are obscene by reason
of the lesson taught (as when purity is derided or impurity condoned),
by reason of the thing represented (as when the main theme is impurity,
or when acts of impurity are represented or suggested, or when sɛҳuąƖ
passion is emphasized), or by reason of the players (as when they are
noted for immorality, or when their dress is indecent, or their
language objectionable).

(d) Dances are obscene in themselves when the postures, movements, or
contact of the dancers is indecent; they are obscene by reason of the
dancers, when these are indecently attired. Public dance halls,
cabarets, road houses, and night clubs--where there is no supervision
and young girls come unattended to dance until late hours with men
unknown to them, and where there is intoxication and
boisterousness--are the natural haunts of the obscene dance, but it may
be found even in more respectable places.

(e) Books or other writings contain obscenity When they inculcate or
recommend impure acts, or advise how these may be committed; when they
treat sins of impurity or narrate immoral facts or stories in such a
manner as to make vice seem alluring or pardonable to the intended
reader; when an erotic composition by language, allusions, details,
sympathetic treatment, etc., gives prominence to animal passion.

1457. As is stated elsewhere (see 1461 sqq.), scandal is not given
unless the persons affected by one's conduct are susceptible to evil
influence. Hence, there is no obscenity when on account of
circuмstances there is no suggestion of evil in things which under
other conditions would be immoral and seductive.

(a) Images of the nude in the studio of an artist, and anatomical
charts, figures or illustrations in a book intended for the instruction
of medical men, are not classed as obscene, since the persons for whom
they are made are supposed to be so much under the influence of the
esthetic or scientific principles of their professions that no harm
will be taken.

(b) The obscenity of dress is largely dependent on its novelty, for
things that are usual cease to excite special attention. This we can
see from the fact that styles that are conservative today would have
been extreme ten years ago. And so the scanty attire of hot countries,
the dress of the bathing beach, and the moderate decolleté tolerated in
private gatherings are not obscene in their own proper times and places.

(c) Plays which contain gross or unseemly expressions or passages are
not therefore obscene, if in the main they uphold decency and morality;
otherwise, we should have to regard as immoral even the classic drama.
Newman says of Shakespeare: "Often as he may offend against modesty, he
is clear of a worse charge, sensuality, and hardly a passage can be
instanced in all that he has written to seduce the imagination or to
excite the passions." It is a simple matter to omit from plays of this
kind the word or phrase that is offensive to modern ears or to the
innocence of youth.

(d) The fact that some individuals find all dancing a strong stimulus
to impure passion does not prove that every dance is obscene. Some
types of dance, it is true, might be rightly called "the devil's
march"; other dances, named after various animals, may also be
suggestive. But there are also standard types of dance in which many
experience not temptation, but innocent pastime, and which have also
physical, esthetic and social values.

(e) To books and other writings should be applied what was said about
plays, namely, that they are not to be classed as obscene on account of
isolated passages unsuited for the reading of children or other
susceptible persons, or excitable to prurient or impure minds. Even the
Bible may seem objectionable to a prude, and the indecent will go
through its pages with a fine-tooth comb in the search for indecent
matter; but public opinion will rightly class as a lunatic the person
who would endeavor to have the Bible rated as obscene.

1458. Persons Who Give Scandal on Account of Obscenity.--(a) In case of
obscene pictures or statues, scandal is given by the artists, painters,
sculptors or others who make the images, and by the responsible persons
who place them in museums, galleries, parks or other places to which
there is general admission.

(b) As regards female dress, the guilty parties are proximately the
wearers, but remotely and principally the designers and society leaders
who impose their will in making the fashions dangerous and in causing
one extreme mode to follow quickly upon another.

(e) With respect to obscene plays, the scandal is given by playwrights,
managers, actors and actresses, and those who patronize or applaud
them. The public itself and the civil authorities share in the guilt,
when they supinely tolerate the degradation of the stage and the
corruption of morals.

(d) In the case of obscene dances, the givers of scandal are the
proprietors of resorts where the dances are held, the musicians and
singers (especially when the songs themselves are obscene), and the
dancers, spectators and other patrons.

(e) In the case of salacious publications or writings, authors,
publishers, printers, vendors, and the reading public share
responsibility for the scandal. Government censorship of the press is
not desirable, but government suppression of obscenity has always been
the policy of countries of English origin. The private citizen, then,
is not free of guilt if he takes no interest even when he sees piles of
indecent magazines, pictures, etc., being sold openly on the
newsstands. Canon Law (Canon 1404) forbids booksellers to sell, lend,
or keep books that deal _ex professo_ with obscenity, though there is
no objection to expurgated editions, as in the case of classical works.

1459. Results of Scandal.--The spiritual ruin occasioned by scandal is
sin.

(a) Thus, formal or material sin may be the result of scandal. Example:
Titus blasphemed before a boy who did not understand the meaning of the
word and before a youth who did understand, with the result that both
repeated the same blasphemy. Thus, the scandal given by Titus produced
material sin in the boy and formal sin in the youth.

(b) Mortal sin or venial sin may be the result of scandal, just as a
stone in the road may cause either a fall or a stumble.

(c) Sin of the same species or sin of a different species from that
committed by the scandal-giver may be the result of scandal. Thus, a
calumny spoken against a neighbor may induce a hearer either to repeat
the calumny, or to imitate the act imputed by the calumniator, or to
give up religion.

(d) Sin already committed by the person scandalized or sin which is new
to him, sin he had in mind to commit or sin he had not
contemplated--any one of these results suffice for scandal. Example: It
is scandal to recall to drunkenness by bad example a person who had
reformed, or by bad example to bring back to another's mind and desire
a sin on which he was once resolved.

1460. Scandal resembles solicitation and complicity, since like them it
exercises an evil influence on others; but it is not identical with
them.

(a) Thus, solicitation influences another to evil by counsel,
persuasion, command, or invitation; scandal may influence to evil
either in these ways or by mere example. Again, solicitation does not
necessarily intend the fall of another into guilt, as does scandal.
Thus, one may solicit another to get drunk who had already determined
to get drunk, or one may persuade another that drunkenness is no sin,
and then solicit him to drunkenness. But, if one who intends the
demoralization and corruption of his neighbor solicits him to
drunkenness, solicitation is joined with scandal.

(b) Complicity or coöperation influences another to evil by helping him
in the commission of sin; scandal influences him to evil by suggesting
that he commit sin. Example: Titus, an elderly man, gets drunk or
praises drunkards in the presence of Balbus, a youth. Influenced by
these acts and words, Balbus tells his acquaintance Claudius that he
intends to get drunk, and Claudius supplies him with the intoxicants.
Titus is guilty of scandal, Claudius of coöperation.

1461. The persons before whom disedifying words, deeds or omissions are
done, are of two classes. (a) Persons apt to be scandalized are those
who are not experienced either in vice (especially that to which the
disedifying example would lead), or in virtue (especially the opposite
virtue); for such persons are readily subject to bad influence. Thus,
young persons Whose character is yet unformed, the ignorant and
well-meaning persons who are weak, are peculiarly disposed to be led
astray by example. (b) Persons not apt to be scandalized are those who
are habitually so bad or so good that anything disedifying done before
them is not calculated to influence their attitude towards evil.

1462. May a person hold himself guiltless of scandal, therefore,
because his wrongdoing was committed before those who are not apt to be
scandalized?

(a) If he is certain that the witnesses will not be weakened morally on
his account, and if he does not intend their fall, he is free of the
guilt of scandal. Thus, if one blasphemes in the presence of a lady
renowned for piety, or of a rough crowd of men whose daily talk is
interspersed with blasphemies, it is practically sure that no scandal
is given.

(b) If a person is not certain that the witnesses will suffer no moral
harm through his example, he cannot hold himself as not guilty of
scandal. For, no matter how good or how bad the witnesses may appear to
him, they may not be as fixed in character as he thinks, and his
misconduct may be the starting point for them of a downward course or
of a more rapid descent into evil. Generally speaking, there is this
uncertainty about the influence of bad example, for the reading of
character is no easy matter, and many sins are internal.

1463. There are two cases especially, when even the very good may
become bad or the very bad become worse through force of evil example:
(a) when the sin committed is from its nature very alluring. Sic
auctores censent vix fieri posse quin in materia luxuriæ malum exemplum
peccati motus cieat; (b) the second case is when the authority of the
one who gives scandal is great. For the fact that he sides with or
seems to side with evil, will demoralize the good and encourage the
wicked in wrongdoing.

1464. Passive scandal (see 1452), that is, the spiritual fall
consequent on the example of another, is of two kinds: (a) scandal
given, which is a fall into sin occasioned by conduct really
disedifying, as when a youth becomes drunk because he has seen his
elders intoxicated; (b) scandal taken, which is a fall into sin
occasioned by conduct irreproachable in itself, but wrongly
interpreted, either out of malice (Pharisaic scandal), or out of
ignorance or frailty (scandal of little ones). The Pharisees were
scandalized at our Lord's dining with sinners, because they themselves
were unmerciful (Matt., ix. 11 sqq.), and the weak brethren at Corinth
were scandalized at the eating of certain meats, because their
consciences were tender (I Cor., xi. 23 sqq.).

1465. Sinfulness of Scandal.--(a) Scandal in the wide sense is not
necessarily a sin. Thus, St. Peter acted out of love for his Master
when he wished to dissuade Him from the Passion, but our Lord, in order
to correct more vigorously the wrong ideas of Peter, called them a
scandal (Matt., xvi. 23).

(b) Passive scandal is always a sin in the one who falls because of the
conduct of another; but it does not always suppose that the conduct
which occasioned the fall was a sin, as is clear from the remarks made
above on Pharisaic scandal and the scandal of little ones.

(c) Active scandal is always a sin in the one whose conduct occasions
the fall of another, since that conduct is either sinful, or has such
an appearance of sin that it should have been omitted. But it does not
always suppose a sin in the person who witnesses the scandal, for he
may proceed without a fall in spite of the obstacle placed in his path.

1466. Is scandal a distinct species of sin, or only a circuмstance that
may happen to any kind of sin?

(a) Passive scandal is not a special kind of sin. For the scandalized
person may fall into any and every kind of sin, and the fact that
example occasions his fall does not add any special or new opposition
to the virtue against which he offends. Thus, he who breaks the fast
because he saw others break the fast, is guilty of the same sin of
intemperance as those who gave him scandal. But passive scandal may be
an aggravating or an extenuating circuмstance, aggravating if the
scandal was taken, extenuating if the scandal was given.

(b) Active scandal, if it is only indirectly intentional (see 1450) and
is offered by conduct evil in itself, is not a special sin. The reason
is that in such scandal one does not specially intend the spiritual
ruin of a neighbor, but only the satisfaction of one's own desire.
Thus, he who breaks the fast before others to satisfy his own appetite,
does not directly wish the corruption of those others, and hence his
sin is that of intemperance with the added circuмstance of bad example.

(c) Active scandal, if it is only indirectly intentional and is offered
by conduct not evil but evil-appearing, is reductively the special sin
of scandal, For, since all active scandal is sinful, and in this case
there is no other species of sin, the conduct not being really evil in
itself, the sin in question must be reduced to scandal. Thus, one who
is dispensed from the law of abstinence and who eats meat on a day of
abstinence in the presence of others who know he is a Catholic but do
not know he is dispensed, does not sin against temperance, but against
edification. His sin is that of scandal only reductively, since he does
not directly will the fall of others. There is also the circuмstance
that the law of abstinence may suffer as a result of the scandal.

(d) Active scandal, if it is directly intentional (see 1450), is
directly also the special sin of scandal. For this kind of scandal
directly intends the spiritual ruin of a neighbor, and so is directly
opposed to a special good of another person and to the special
charitable act of fraternal correction. Hence, a person who breaks the
fast in order to lead his neighbor into a like transgression is guilty
of both intemperance and scandal; he who to make his neighbor sin
appears to break the fast, is guilty of scandal, but not of
intemperance.

1467. Practical Applications of the Preceding Paragraph to
Confession.--(a) Species of Sins.--In case of passive scandal there is
only one species of sin to be confessed, namely, the intemperance
occasioned by bad example; in case of active scandal indirectly
intended and offered by evil conduct, there is only one species of sin,
namely, intemperance, with the circuмstance of publicity or bad
example; in case of active scandal indirectly intended and offered by
evil-seeming conduct, there is only one species of sin, namely,
scandal; in case of active scandal directly intended, there is only the
species of scandal, if the conduct of the scandalizer is only
evil-seeming, but there are several species of sin, if his conduct is
really evil, namely, his own intemperance and the scandal he gives.

(b) Number of Sins.--As many sins of scandal are committed as there are
persons present to be scandalized, for scandal is given to those
present as individuals, not as parts of a group (see 219). Hence, one
commits more scandals by being drunk on a public street than by being
drunk with a roomful of companions; and by attacking religion before a
large assembly than by attacking it before a small circle.

(c) Circuмstances of Intention and Conduct.--Those who give bad example
should confess especially the end and the means employed, for on these
depends the important distinction between directly intentional and
indirectly intentional scandal and the specific character of the sin
committed, as explained in the preceding paragraph.

(d) Circuмstance of Condition of the Persons Involved.--This should be
mentioned in confessing scandal, if it adds a new malice. Thus, the
fact that scandal is given by a superior bound by his office to give
good example, adds to the violation of charity a violation of justice;
the fact that the person whose ruin is intended is consecrated to God,
or married, or a relative, adds to the malice of intentional scandal
against chastity; the fact that a person is scandalized entirely
against his will, makes the sin scandal rather than simple solicitation.

(e) Circuмstance of the Result of Scandal.--The results of scandal
should be confessed when they add a new malice to the sin or induce an
obligation of restitution. This subject will be considered in the three
following paragraphs.

1468. Is the scandalizer guilty of the species of sin to which his
conduct is calculated to lead the scandalized? (a) If the scandal is
directly intentional, that is, if the scandalizer intends that some
special sin or sins shall be committed by the one scandalized, the
former is guilty in desire of that which he intends that the latter
shall be guilty of in reality (cfr. 96, 102). Hence, if by calumniating
clerics or religious or church members one intends that one's listeners
shall be induced to repeat these calumnies, or to do what the
calumniated persons were said to do, or to abandon religion, one is
guilty in desire of the particular sin or sins that one wills.

(b) If the scandal is only indirectly intentional, that is, if the
scandalizer foresees but does not expressly will the fall of the
scandalized (e.g., if he calumniates others to injure the calumniated
and not those who hear the calumny), the matter is more difficult, and
authorities differ in their opinions. Some moralists think that the
scandalizer is guilty of the result he foresees, because he wills it
interpretatively by offering the occasion for it. Others think that he
is not guilty of the result foreseen, because he does not effect it,
either in intention (for he does not desire it) or in reality (for he
is not bound, except by charity, to prevent its accomplishment in
others); he permits, but does not approve, the sin of his neighbor.

1469. A practical application of the previous paragraph to confession
may be made as follows: (a) those who are guilty of direct scandal must
confess not only their own sin, but also the sin to which their conduct
leads their neighbor; (b) those who are guilty of indirect scandal are
not obliged, according to the second opinion given above, to confess
the species of sin to which their conduct incited the beholder, and
hence, if their conduct was only evil-seeming, it suffices for them to
confess that they gave scandal.

1470. Is the scandalizer responsible for the injuries to third parties
resulting from the sins occasioned by his scandal?

(a) According to one opinion, he is bound to make his share of
restitution for injustices occasioned by his own bad example, because
it is admitted that he who counsels injustice is so bound, and example
is more persuasive than words of counsel. Hence, one who steals from
his employer before fellow-employees, and so brings on a custom of
stealing among them, is bound to restore, not only what he took
himself, but also a share of other losses not made good to the employer.

(b) According to the more common opinion, however, the scandalizer in
the present case is not held to restitution, except as regards his own
ill-gotten goods, even if there is question of scandal directly
intended. For, either the scandalizer is not guilty of the injustice
committed by the others, as not desiring it; or, at any rate, he is
only the occasion, not the cause or coöperator in that injustice.

1471. If scandal amounts to incitation or coöperation, the guilt of the
neighbor's sin and responsibility for injury the neighbor causes are
incurred by the scandalizer.

(a) Thus, bad example may amount to incitation to sin, as when a person
knows that others are directed to imitate him, and yet he gives them
bad example. Even though he does not directly intend their fall into
sin, he does intend his own conduct, while realizing that there is
attached to it the circuмstance that it is an invitation to sin; and
hence it would seem that the guilt of this sin is also contracted.

(b) Bad example may amount to coöperation in sin, as when a person by
his bad example shows others the way to commit sin, which they could
not have learned without his example. Hence, if a person opens a safe
to steal, knowing that other dishonest persons are observing in order
to learn the combination and steal, it seems that to some extent he
shares in the guilt and duty of restitution of the thieves who learn
from him. There is no doubt that a defamer is bound to make reparation,
not only before his immediate listeners, but also before others who
have listened to them; for, by defaming before talkative persons, he
virtually authorized them to spread his words.

1472. The Gravity of the Sin of Scandal.--(a) From its nature all
active scandal is a mortal sin. It turns man away from Christ (I Cor.,
viii. 12); it is spiritual murder, destructive of the souls of others,
and so contrary to the mercy and brotherly correction required by
charity (Rom, xiv. 15); it brings on oneself the wrath of God (Matt.,
xviii. 6), and on one's family, friends and profession obloquy and
disgrace.

(b) From the indeliberation of the act or from the smallness of the
matter, active scandal may be venial, as will be seen in the following
paragraph.

1473. Mortal and Venial Scandal.--(a) Passive scandal is always a sin,
mortal or venial according to the fall occasioned by the conduct
witnessed. But mortal sin may be occasioned by venial sin, as when an
inferior takes the liberty to blaspheme, because his superior used
profane language; and venial sin may be occasioned by mortal sin, as
when the blasphemy of an infidel provokes his neighbor to use profane
language against the blasphemer.

(b) Active scandal indirectly intended is sometimes a venial sin, as
when the scandalous conduct is only a venial sin, or is no sin but has
the appearance of a slight sin; sometimes it is a mortal sin, as when
the scandalous conduct is a mortal sin, or when a person so despises
the spiritual welfare of his neighbor that he chooses to do an
evil-seeming act that will cause the neighbor to fall into serious sin.

(c) Active scandal directly intended is sometimes a venial sin, as when
a person intends by conduct venially sinful to lead a neighbor into
venial sin; sometimes it is a mortal sin, as when one intends to lead
one's neighbor into mortal sin, or commits a mortal sin in order to
lead one's neighbor into venial sin.

1474. Increase and decrease in gravity of scandal depends on the
internal dispositions of the scandal-giver and the external influence
he has on the person scandalized. (a) The internal factors on which the
quantity of scandal depends are the amount of deliberation and the
degree of intention. It is more serious to speak a scandalous word with
premeditation than to speak it somewhat thoughtlessly; more scandalous
to speak it when the hearer's spiritual ruin is directly intended, than
when that ruin is not directly intended. (b) The external factors on
which the quantity of scandal depends are the amount of influence the
bad example has and the character of the evil to which it leads. It is
more serious to corrupt A, who would not otherwise have been corrupted,
than to corrupt B, who would have been corrupted even without one's bad
example; it is more serious to cause another to commit mortal sin, than
to cause him to commit venial sin.

1475. Persons Scandalized.--Is it possible to scandalize people who are
firmly rooted in virtue?

(a) If the question be understood of scandal in a wide sense, even the
perfect may be scandalized. They may be shocked and horrified at the
evil example they witness; they may be hindered from performing the
external good works they desire to accomplish (I Thess., ii. 18). But
these things do not hinder them internally, or separate them from the
love of God (Rom., viii. 38, 39).

(b) If the question be understood of possibility in an absolute sense,
even the perfect may suffer real scandal, that is, they may be
influenced to sin on account of the example witnessed. Since they are
not confirmed in grace in this life, it is not repugnant that they
commit sin and lose grace.

(c) If the question be understood of possibility in a relative
sense--that is, if we consider what we should expect in view of the
character of perfect men, and what does usually happen--the perfect
cannot be scandalized, since they are so firmly united to God that the
sayings or doings, no matter of whom, cannot cause them to sin (Ps.
cxxiv. 1, 2), although they may at times be disturbed thereby (Ps.
lxxii. 2).

1476. Is it possible that the perfect should give scandal?

(a) If the question be understood of absolute possibility, even the
perfect may give scandal, since they are not immune from defect (I
John, i. 8). (b) If the question be understood of relative possibility,
as explained above, the perfect cannot scandalize, for their sins are
mostly internal acts not entirely deliberate, while the external words
or acts in which they fall short deviate so slightly from right as to
offer no occasion of sinning to another. The perfect man is one who is
on his guard, especially that he become not a stumbling-block to
others, and it is therefore a rare exception when he causes scandal.

1477. Duty of Avoiding Scandal.--At times it is impossible to avoid
giving scandal, unless one surrenders some spiritual or temporal good.
Hence, on this point there are two questions to be considered: (a) When
is one obliged to surrender spiritual goods for the sake of avoiding
scandal? (b) When is one obliged to surrender temporal goods for the
sake of avoiding scandal?

1478. The Surrender of Spiritual Goods in order to Avoid Scandal.--(a)
Spiritual goods that are so necessary that one cannot give them up
without committing sin may not be surrendered; for, according to the
order of charity, one must be more solicitous to keep oneself from sin
than to preserve others, and moreover a good end does not justify
sinful means. Hence, it is not lawful to commit mortal or even venial
sin to avoid giving scandal to another. Examples: One may not tone down
the doctrine of right and wrong in order to keep another from
blasphemy. One may not tell a slight lie to keep another from taking
undeserved offense.

(b) Spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin are not to be
neglected on account of malicious or Pharisaic scandal, as long as
there is a good reason which calls for their use; for the person who
takes malicious scandal from these spiritual things is in difficulty
through his own fault and can rescue himself, and it is not reasonable
that his malice should be permitted to impede the benefit of others.
Thus, our Lord declared that no attention was to be given the scandal
which the Pharisees took from His doctrine (Matt., xv. 14).

(c) Spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin should be
neglected on account of Pharisaic scandal, if there is no great reason
for their use; for one should not give another an occasion of sinning,
even if the other is in bad faith, unless there is necessity. Thus, our
Lord declared that the act of teaching truth to others should be
omitted, if it would only provoke rejection (Matt, vii. 6). Example: A
wife may omit saying grace aloud, if her prayer moves her husband to
mimicry or to attempts to make the prayer a mockery.

(d) Spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin should be
omitted on account of the scandal of little ones, as long as it remains
scandal from weakness or ignorance; for charity requires that one
assist those who are in spiritual need, and persons who are in danger
of scandal through no fault, or through a slight fault of their own,
are in spiritual need. Hence, one should conceal or delay the
performance of good works that are not necessary, if they would
scandalize the weak, or else one should explain to these persons the
righteousness of such works. In any case, one should not do these works
before those who without malice will be scandalized, but should await
such a time as will give them better knowledge, or put them in bad
faith. Examples: If a person knows that personal acts of piety which he
performs seem to some well-meaning persons superstitious and will shake
their faith, he should omit these acts when such persons are present.
If parents are scandalized because a child wishes to leave them in
order to become a priest or a religious, the child should delay for a
while, if there is hope of a change of view on their part.

1479. As was said in the chapter on law (see 288 sqq.), the higher law
has the preference in case of a conflict. Now, natural law itself
requires that one avoid the scandal of the weak. Hence the following
cases:

(a) Negative precepts of the natural law may not be contravened in
order to avoid the scandal of the weak; for such contravention is
necessarily sinful. Hence, one may not lie or commit perjury to prevent
scandal.

(b) Affirmative precepts of the natural law should be contravened in
order to avoid the scandal of the weak, but only when such scandal is a
greater evil than the omission of the thing commanded. Thus, one should
omit a fraternal correction or a punishment, if the one corrected would
be made worse, or the punishment occasion a schism. But one may not
neglect to help a person in extreme need because of scandal.

(c) Precepts of the divine law should be contravened on account of
scandal of the weak, unless contravention of the law is a greater evil
than permission of the scandal. Thus, the preaching of the Gospel is
commanded by divine law, and yet it may be omitted to avoid scandal
(Matt., vii. 6). Item integritas confessionis de jure divino est, et
tamen poenitens deberet peccatum silere, si intelligeret confessarium
cui ex necessitate confiteri deberet grave ex eo scandalum passurum.
But it is not lawful to omit Baptism in order to avoid scandal to those
who will be provoked to anger or blasphemy.

(d) Precepts of ecclesiastical law should be contravened, when
otherwise there will arise a scandal of the weak which is a graver evil
than the contravention of the precepts. Thus, a parish-priest should
say Mass on Sunday, even though not fasting, if this is necessary in
order to avoid great scandal among the people. A wife may omit Mass or
a fast, in order to prevent her ignorant husband from using blasphemies
or imprecations, or to avoid notable dissensions in the home. Puella
quae scit juvenem infirmum ex suo aspectu scandalizari debet sacro
omisso domi manere.

1480. In order that scandal of the weak may be considered a greater
evil than contravention of a grave precept, it is necessary that the
following conditions be verified:

(a) The evil of the scandal must be certain and grave, for an uncertain
or slight scandal is not a greater evil than certain contravention of a
grave precept. Thus, if one only has vague fears that scandal may be
given, or if one has no determined person in mind and thinks only that
someone or other will be harmed, there is no excuse for contravention
of the precept.

(b) The evil of contravening the precept must not impose intolerable
hardships or lead to greater scandals; for one is not required to
attempt the impossible, or to give scandal in order to avoid scandal.
Thus, it would be unreasonable to expect that a student should never
read the classical poets or philosophers of Greece or Rome, lest
scandal be given some person overstrict in this matter; that a wife
absent herself from Mass permanently, lest her ignorant husband be
provoked to rage; that a young lady be deprived of fresh air and
exercise, lest an old relative be disedified. If we have to choose
between occasioning irreligion in one person by attending Mass and
occasioning irreligion in many persons by staying away from Mass, we
should rather permit the scandal of the one. Moralists generally hold
that scandal of the weak does not justify absence from obligatory Mass
oftener than once or twice, and some hold that it does not require
absence from Mass at all.

1481. Good works that are of counsel only (such as evangelical
poverty), and those that are obligatory only under certain conditions
(such as almsdeeds), may be more easily put aside in order to avoid
scandal of the weak. It should be noted, however, that for some persons
these works are of precept, and hence they are to be judged, as regards
those persons, according to the rules given for contravention of
precepts. (a) Thus, the counsels are obligatory for those who have
vowed them (e.g., religious).

(b) Corporal and spiritual works of mercy are obligatory for prelates
and other clerics because of their office.

1482. Spiritual goods, therefore, whether of precept or of counsel, are
not to be surrendered entirely on account of any scandal, whether it be
Pharisaic scandal or scandal of the weak. But, out of charity for
others, these goods should not be made use of (apart from necessity) in
a way that would occasion spiritual ruin to anyone. Hence, if there is
danger of scandal: (a) they should be concealed, as when one goes to
Mass early in the morning or by another way, so as not to occasion
blasphemy in one's neighbor; (b) they should be delayed, as when one
puts off a fraternal correction until the other person is in a frame of
mind to be corrected with profit; (c) they may be used but should be
explained, as when one is called to give Baptism to a person dying in a
notorious resort and takes witnesses with him, or tells the bystanders
the reason of his visit.

1483. When Should Temporal Goods be Surrendered for the Sake of
Avoiding Scandal.--(a) Temporal goods of which one is not the owner,
but only the custodian or administrator, may not be surrendered at will
on account of scandal; for no one has the right to give away the
property of others. Hence, rulers in Church or State may not
arbitrarily surrender common property; guardians may not give up the
property of their charges.

(b) Temporal goods of which one is owner should be surrendered on
account of the scandal of little ones, unless a greater evil results
from such surrender; for, as said above (see 1165 sqq.), one should be
willing to suffer some detriment in temporal things to avert from one's
neighbor detriment in spiritual things. Hence, one should abstain from
a certain food, if one's eating of it will cause spiritual ruin to some
innocent person (I Cor., viii. 13).

(c) Temporal goods are not to be surrendered on account of Pharisaic
scandal; for this would be injurious to the common good, since it would
encourage the wicked to despoil the conscientious, and it would also be
injurious to the wicked themselves, since they would continue in sin by
keeping what was not their own. Hence, one may demand money owed, even
if the debtor is greedy and will use profane language.

1484. The surrender of temporal goods spoken of in the previous
paragraph may be understood in a number of senses.

(a) It can be understood either of the act of giving another what is
held by us and is our own property, or of the act of permitting another
to keep that which is held by him but which belongs to us. Charity may
call for either kind of surrender as a means to the avoidance of
scandal. Example: Rather than have a bitter quarrel or lose a
friendship over a few cents of change, it is better to let the other
man keep what he owes you, or give him what you do not owe, if he is
also in good faith.

(b) The surrender of temporal goods can also be understood either of
the internal willingness to sacrifice temporal things for things
spiritual, when necessity requires, or of the actual external
sacrifice. Charity demands the internal willingness, but it does not
always demand the actual sacrifice; for sometimes such a sacrifice
would be harmful to the common welfare and the welfare of individuals.
Thus, the saying of our Lord that we should not contend with a neighbor
who wishes to take our coat, but should rather let him take our cloak
as well (Matt, v. 40), and the saying of St. Paul that the Corinthians
should prefer to suffer injury and fraud rather than have lawsuits
against fellow-Christians (I Cor., vi. 7), are to be understood of a
willingness to sacrifice temporal things in order to avoid scandal,
when a greater good makes this necessary. But those texts do not mean
that it is obligatory or advisable to make an actual sacrifice at other
times.

(c) The surrender of temporal goods may be understood either of a
giving over to others without protest or remonstrance, or of a yielding
to them only after one has tried to prevent scandal without incurring
temporal loss. Charity does not require, even when there is danger of
scandal of the weak, that one should surrender one's goods without any
effort to save them. Thus, if an ignorant Catholic is shocked because
his priest asks for money to support the Church, the latter will do him
a service by explaining the right the Church has to be supported and
the duty of the members to contribute.

1485. Temporal goods may be understood here either of things of great
value (e.g., necessaries of life) or of things of minor value (e.g.,
luxuries). (a) Thus, if scandal will place a neighbor in extreme
spiritual need, even things of great value should be surrendered, if
this is necessary to avoid scandal. (b) If scandal will not place him
in extreme need, one is not obliged to surrender any except things of
minor value (see 1165 sqq.). Thus, St. Paul does not ask that his
converts give up all food in order to avoid scandalizing the weak, but
only such food as they can get along without (Rom, xiv. 15; I Cor.,
viii. 13).

1486. Should church goods ever be surrendered in order to avoid scandal
of the weak? (a) On the one hand, goods of the Church have a special
sacredness, because they have been given and set apart for spiritual
purposes and the common good of the Church. Hence, he would be an
unfaithful steward who would devote them to merely temporal ends, such
as the enrichment or exaltation of himself or of his friends, or who
would alienate them without due authority. (b) On the other hand, the
temporal goods of the Church are to serve spiritual ends, and the
spiritual must not be subordinated to the temporal. Hence, one of the
chief causes of scandal in the Church is the appearance of avarice in
churchmen (even as regards goods that are not personal, but common),
especially if they seem to put money before the salvation of the
people. There are times, therefore, when to avoid scandal a prelate or
priest ought to forego something really due the Church.

1487. Cases of Scandal and Renouncement of Church Goods.--(a) If there
is question of Pharisaic scandal alone, one should not renounce the
goods of which one is the custodian, but should resist spoliation as
far as one is able. Thus, St. Thomas of Canterbury would not agree to
the invasion of church rights by Henry II. So also a pastor should not
neglect the collection of dues needed for the maintenance of the
church, because some malcontents will take offense at this; neither
should he yield to the extortionate demands of some hired person who
will be scandalized because more is not paid.

(b) If there is question of the scandal of the weak, concessions should
be made, lest spiritual things be made to suffer for the temporal.
Thus, St. Paul would not accept any support for himself from persons
newly converted to Christianity, lest this prove a hindrance to the
preaching of the Gospel (I Cor., ix. 12). For the sake of the ignorant
or the weak, therefore, the Church does not insist on dues and other
payments, until these persons have had the opportunity of learning
their duty. The faithful, indeed, are bound to contribute to the
pastors who serve them, but the precept is an affirmative one, and
obliges therefore not at all times, but when the conditions of time,
place, person, etc., make this possible. It would be a real scandal of
the weak, if a person were driven from church because he did not
realize his duty of contributing, or if a poor person were taxed beyond
his means, or if an affluent cleric were always asking for money and
never giving to the needy, or if a priest were to talk collections
instead of doctrine, or devoted most of his time to money-making
enterprises. Anything that commercializes religion is also a scandal
both to Catholics and non-Catholics.

1488. Duty of Repairing Scandal.-The paragraphs immediately preceding
have spoken of the duty of avoiding scandal. There is also a duty of
repairing scandal that has been given. (a) Thus, there is a duty of
charity to repair the scandal one has given; for, if all are required
to practise fraternal correction, those especially are bound to this
who are responsible for the sins of others. (b) There is sometimes a
duty of legal justice, as when superiors, who are bound from their
office to give good example, give scandal to their subjects. (c) There
is sometimes a duty of commutative justice, as when the scandalizer has
employed unjust means (such as force, fear or traps) in order to lead
another into scandal.

1489. Ways of Repairing Scandal.--(a) Scandal is repaired publicly or
privately. Reparation is public, when it is made before the community,
and private, when it is made before individuals. (b) Scandal is
repaired explicitly or implicitly. Explicit reparation is made by
retractation of one's words, by condemnation of one's acts, by the
destruction of one's scandalous writings, by efforts to bring back to
virtue those whom one has misled, etc. Implicit reparation is made by
reformation of one's conduct, the abandonment of that which gave
scandal, the practice of good example, prayer for the person
scandalized, etc.

1490. Particular Kinds of Scandal to be Repaired.--(a) Scandal is
public or private. Public scandal is given before the community at
large, as when one openly apostatizes so that it is the talk of the
whole neighborhood or town, or writes a signed article favoring
atheism, or makes a disedifying speech before a gathering of people.
Scandal is private, when it is given before a few persons, and when it
does not tend to become generally known, as when husband and wife
quarrel before their domestic circle.

(b) Scandal is ordinary or extraordinary. Ordinary scandal is given by
bad example alone; extraordinary scandal adds to bad example injury or
injustice, or the debt of punishment for a crime. Thus, one who becomes
slightly intoxicated at a party gives ordinary scandal; while one who
by trickery schemes to get another into a situation in which he will be
effectually scandalized, or who strikes an inoffensive priest, or who
spreads disedifying printed matter, is guilty of extraordinary scandal.

1491. It rests with the prudent judgment of the confessor or
ecclesiastical authority to decide in particular instances the way in
which scandals are to be repaired. But in general the following rules
may be given:

(a) Public scandal should be repaired publicly, even though it has not
actually seduced those who are aware of it; for otherwise the evil
influence remains. Thus, a drunkard should take the pledge of total
abstinence, or else give an example of sobriety; an apostate should
renounce his errors as openly as he defended them.

(b) Private scandal may be repaired privately, that is, before the few
persons who were scandalized. Thus, the husband and wife who quarrelled
before their children make reparation when they tell the children not
to quarrel, and when they strengthen this advice by good example.

(c) Ordinary scandal may be repaired implicitly, that is, by turning
over a new leaf. Thus, one who has been away from Mass and the
Sacraments for a long time makes reparation when he appears at church,
goes to confession, and receives Communion; one who has been keeping
bad company makes reparation when he separates from his former
associates.

(d) Extraordinary scandal is repaired explicitly, that is, by making
the restitution or satisfaction which justice demands, or by performing
the penalty required by the law. Thus, if through treachery a person
has seduced another from virtue, he must either himself or through
others endeavor to recall the scandalized person to his former virtue;
if a person has been guilty of laying violent hands on a cleric, he
must perform the penance prescribed; if a person has distributed
scandalous literature, he must try to stop its circulation, or to
distribute contrary literature.

1492. When satisfaction requires public apology or retraction, this can
be made in various ways. (a) Thus, one may withdraw through the press
false statements publicly made; (b) one may apologize before a number
of witnesses authorized to make this known; (c) one may retract before
the pastor or confessor, with the understanding that the priest will
later declare that all due satisfaction has been made.

1493. Denial of Sacraments in Cases of Scandal.--Is it lawful to
administer the Sacraments to one who has not made satisfaction for
public scandal?

(a) If the obligation of reparation is not grave, it is lawful to
administer the Sacraments, since the person who gave the scandal is not
subject to grave sin and unworthy of the Sacraments, and his admission
to them will not be a new scandal.

(b) If the obligation of reparation is grave, it is lawful to admit the
party in question to the Sacrament of Penance; for every person rightly
disposed has a right to absolution, and the fact that a person who gave
scandal goes to confession is edifying. But absolution should be given
on condition that reparation for the scandal is seriously promised.

(c) If the obligation of reparation is grave, it is not lawful as a
rule to admit to the other Sacraments, until the reparation has been
actually performed. Thus, if it is notorious in a parish that a certain
individual has been living in a serious occasion of sin or has been
circulating impious doctrines, the occasion of sin should be removed or
the doctrines should be retracted, before the individual is admitted to
Communion, etc.; otherwise, a new scandal would be given the faithful
from the apparent approval given the scandalizer by the minister of the
Sacrament received.

1494. In certain cases, however, the Sacraments other than Penance may
also be given before reparation for grave scandal has been made,
namely, when the circuмstances are such that the administration of the
Sacraments will offer no scandal. (a) Thus, a dying person who is
penitent but unable to perform some satisfaction for scandal given is
granted the Sacraments. (b) A person who is well disposed, but who has
not yet made satisfaction for scandal, may sometimes be given Communion
privately. (c) A person who is not well disposed, and who will not make
satisfaction for scandal, is sometimes permitted to contract marriage
before the priest, namely, when there is a grave reason for marriage
and scandal is precluded.